The third time as farce : whatever happened to the penal state?

John Pitts develops a critique of the neo-liberal punitiveness argument of Wacquant, reminding us that accounts of the emergence of the penal or security states rests, in the last analysis, on empirical data. While there might be room for considerable discussion about precisely what kinds of empirical data would constitute corroborations or challenges to Wacquant's argument, Pitts focuses on one area, recent developments in youth justice in England and Wales. Wacquant, Pitts argues, while identifying some significant developments, ultimately fails in developing a general model of the development of western penal system and “ignores crucial historical, political and cultural differences” between countries.